DİNLERDE İÇİLMEZLER: BİR POTANSİYEL RİSK OLARAK ALKOLLÜ İÇKİLER

Müslümanlar, Hindular, çoğu Budist, Jainistler, Sihler, Hristiyan Baptistler, Hristiyan mormonlar, Hristiyan Yedinci Gün Adventistleri, Tanrı’nın Kilisesi, Hristiyan Bilimciler, bazı Metodistler, Hristiyan Salvation Army, Essene Nazarean Kilisesi, Bahailer alkollü içki içmezler.

Yeryüzündeki dinlerin neredeyse tamamı sarhoşluğu doğru bulmaz.

“İçki” ve türevlerine, Kur’an’da 7, Tevrat’ta 26, İncil’de 4 yerde vurgu vardır.

“
Sarhoşluk” ve türevlerine, Kur’an’da 7, Tevrat’ta 29, İncil’de 12, Zebur’da 2 yerde vurgu vardır.

TEVRAT

İÇKİ: Lev.10:9 “Sen ve oğulların Buluşma Çadırı’na şarap ya da herhangi bir içki içip girmeyin, yoksa ölürsünüz. Kuşaklar boyunca bir kural olsun bu.

Say.6:3-“Şaraptan ya da herhangi bir içkiden kaçınacak, şaraptan ya da başka içkilerden yapılmış sirke içmeyecek. Üzüm suyu da içmeyecek…”

Yas.21:20-“Onlara şöyle diyecekler:’Oğlumuz dikbaşlı, başkaldıran bir çocuktur. Sözümüzü dinlemiyor. Savurgan ve içkicidir.”

Yas.29:6-“Ekmek yemediniz, şarap ya da başka içki içmediniz. Bütün bunları Tanrınız RAB’bin ben olduğumu anlayasınız diye yaptım diyor.”

Hakimler 13:4- “Bundan böyle şarap ya da içki içmemeye dikkat et, murdar bir şey yeme.”

Hakimler 13:7-“Ama, ‘Gebe kalıp bir oğul doğuracaksın dedi, ‘Bundan böyle şarap ve içki içme, murdar bir şey yeme. Çünkü çocuk ana rahmine düştüğü andan öleceği güne dek Tanrı’nın adanmışı olacak.”

Özdeyişler 20:1-“Şarap insanı alaycı, içki gürültücü yapar, Onun etkisiyle yoldan sapan bilge değildir.”

Özdeyişler 31:4-”Şarap içmek krallara yakışmaz, ey Lemuel, Krallara yakışmaz! İçkiyi özlemek hükümdarlara yaraşmaz.”

Yeşaya 5:11-“Sabah erkenden kalkıp içki peşinden koşanların, gece geç vakte kadar şarap içip kızışanların vay haline!”

Yeşaya 5:22-23-“Şarap içmekte sınır tanımayanların, içkileri karıştırıp içmekten çekinmeyenlerin, rüşvet uğruna kötüyü haklı çıkaranların, haklıların hakkını elinden alanların vay haline!”

Yeşaya 24:9-“Ezgi eşliğinde şarap içilmiyor artık, İçkinin tadı içene acı geliyor.”

Yeşaya 28:7-“Kâhinlerle peygamberler bile şarabın ve içkinin etkisiyle yalpalayıp sendeliyor; içkinin etkisiyle yalpalayıp sendeliyorlar, şaraba yenik düşmüşler. Yanlış görümler görüyorlar, kararlarında tutarsızlar.”

Hezekiel 44:21-“İç avluya gireceği zaman hiçbir kâhin içki içmeyecek.”

Mika 2:10-11-Kalkıp gidin, dinlenme yeriniz değil burası! Murdarlığınız* yüzünden bu yer korkunç biçimde yıkılacak. Mika 2:11-“Yalancı, aldatıcı biri gelip, ‘Size şarap ve içkiden söz edeyim’ dese, Bu halk onu peygamber kabul edecek.”

Habakkuk 2:15-Çıplak bedenlerini seyretmek için komşularına içki içirip sarhoş eden, İçki ye zehir bile katan sizlerin vay haline!”

İNCİL

İÇKİ: Matta 11:18-“Yahya geldiği zaman oruç tutup içkiden kaçındı, ona ‘cinli’ diyorlar.”

Luk.1: 13-“Melek, “Korkma, Zekeriya” dedi, “Duan kabul edildi. Karın Elizabet sana bir oğul doğuracak, adını Yahya koyacaksın. 1: 14 Sevinip coşacaksın. Birçokları da onun doğumuna sevinecek. Luka 1:15-“O, Rab’bin gözünde büyük olacak. Hiç şarap ve içki içmeyecek; daha annesinin rahmindeyken Kutsal Ruh’la dolacak.”

1.Pe.4: 3-“İnanmayanların hoşlandıklarını yaparak sefahat, şehvet, sarhoşluk, çılgın eğlenceler, içki alemleri ve ilke tanımayan putperestlik içinde yaşayarak geçmişte harcadığınız günler yeter!”

SARHOŞLUK: Mat.24:48-51-“Ama o köle kötü olur da içinden, ‘Efendim gecikiyor’ der ve öteki köleleri dövmeye başlarsa, sarhoşlarla birlikte yiyip içerse, efendisi, onun beklemediği günde, ummadığı saatte gelecek, onu şiddetle cezalandırıp ikiyüzlülerle bir tutacak. Orada ağlayış ve diş gıcırtısı olacaktır.”

Luk.12:45-46-“Ama o köle içinden, ‘Efendim gecikiyor’ der, kadın ve erkek hizmetkârları dövmeye, yiyip içip sarhoş olmaya başlarsa, efendisi, onun beklemediği günde, ummadığı saatte gelecek, onu şiddetle cezalandırıp imansızlarla bir tutacaktır.”

1.Ko.11:21-“Her biriniz ötekini beklemeden kendi yemeğini yiyor. Kimi aç kalıyor, kimi sarhoş oluyor.”

Rom.14:21-“Et yememen, şarap içmemen, kardeşinin sürçmesine yol açacak bir şey yapmaman iyidir.”

Ef.5:18-“Şarapla sarhoş olmayın, bu sizi sefahate götürür.”

1.Pe.4: 3 İnanmayanların hoşlandıklarını yaparak sefahat, şehvet, sarhoşluk, çılgın eğlenceler, içki alemleri ve ilke tanımayan putperestlik içinde yaşayarak geçmişte harcadığınız günler yeter!

Mar.7:7-“Bana boşuna taparlar. Çünkü öğrettikleri, sadece insan buyruklarıdır.’ Mar.7:8 Siz Tanrı buyruğunu bir yana bırakmış, insan töresine uyuyorsunuz.” Mar.7:9 İsa onlara ayrıca şunu söyledi: “Kendi törenizi sürdürmek için Tanrı buyruğunu bir kenara itmeyi ne de güzel beceriyorsunuz! Mar.7: 10 Musa, ‘Annene babana saygı göstereceksin’ ve, ‘Annesine ya da babasına söven kesinlikle öldürülecektir’ diye buyurmuştu.

Tit.1:11-“Onların ağzını kapamak gerek. Haksız kazanç uğruna, öğretmemeleri gerekeni öğreterek bazı aileleri tümüyle yıkıyorlar.”

KUR’AN

2/219-“Sana içkiyi ve kumarı sorarlar. De ki: “Onlarda hem büyük günah, hem de insanlar için (bazı zahirî) yararlar vardır. Ama günahları yararlarından büyüktür.” Yine sana Allah yolunda ne harcayacaklarını soruyorlar. De ki: “İhtiyaçtan arta kalanı.” Allah, size âyetleri böyle açıklıyor ki düşünesiniz.”

5/90-“ Ey iman edenler! İçki, kumar, dikili taşlar ve fal okları ancak, şeytan işi birer pisliktir. Onlardan kaçının ki kurtuluşa eresiniz.”

5/91-Şeytan, içki ve kumarla, ancak aranıza düşmanlık ve kin sokmak; sizi Allah’ı anmaktan ve namazdan alıkoymak ister. Artık vazgeçiyor musunuz? (Ayrıca bk. 12/36,41 24/31 47/15)

4/43-“ Ey iman edenler! Sarhoş iken ne söylediğinizi bilinceye kadar, bir de -yolcu olmanız durumu müstesna- cünüp iken yıkanıncaya kadar namaza yaklaşmayın. Eğer hasta olur veya yolculukta bulunursanız, veyahut biriniz abdest bozmaktan gelince ya da eşlerinizle cinsel ilişkide bulunup, su da bulamazsanız o zaman temiz bir toprağa yönelip, (niyet ederek onunla) yüzlerinizi ve ellerinizi meshedin. Şüphesiz Allah, çok affedicidir, çok bağışlayıcıdır.” (Ayrıca bk. 15/15,72 16/67 22/2 50/19)

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36,000,000 Americans harmed directly or indirectly because of alcholosim or problem drinking.

9,000,000 alcoholics or problem drinkers.

200,000 new cases of alcoholism each year

28,400 of the 50,000 killed in traffic accidents each year had alcohol in their blood at the time of the accident.

500,000 disabling injuries are suffered in crashes involving problem drinkers.

34,800 or more than half of the 60,000 non-highway accidental deaths are alcohol involved.

11,000 death certificates annually list alcoholism or alcoholic psychoses as cause.

2,000,000 (approximate) arrests each year for public drunkenness = 40% of all non-traffic arrests.

$21,700,000,000 latest annual expenditure by Americans for alcoholic beverages according to the Distilled Spirits Institute.

$15 BILLION annual economic drain because of alcoholism – in lost work time, health and welfare costs, property damages etc.

15% (approximate) of the 400,000 patients in state mental hospitals are under treatment for the problem of alcoholism.

OVER HALF the states report alcoholism the most frequent diagnosis for first admissions to state hospitals.

1/3 of all suicides are alcohol-related.

1/2 of all homicides are alcohol-related.

THE BIBLE TEACHES TOTAL ABSTINENCE By E. L. Bynum

The Bible teaches total abstinence from all intoxicating drinks. If everyone would be obedient to the teaching of God’s Word, there would be no alcohol problem in America.

Drunkenness brought sorrow to Noah and a curse upon the offspring of Ham, his son. This is the first recorded instance of the use of strong drink and it should give us a clear warning to leave it alone. (See Genesis 9:20-25).

The Nazarites were forbidden to drink wine. “He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine. . . ” Num. 6:3. Samson, the strongest man that ever lived, did not drink wine.

Kings are told not to drink wine. “It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine; nor for princes strong drink.” Pro. 31:4.

The Rechabites were total abstainers. ” . . . Rechab our father commanded us, saying, Ye shall drink no wine, neither ye, nor your sons for ever.” Jer. 35:6.

Daniel refused to drink. “But Daniel purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself with the portion of the king’s meat, nor with the wine which he drank . . . ” Dan. 1:8.

John the Baptist was a total abstainer. “For he shall be great in the sight of the Lord, and shall drink neither wine nor strong drink . . . ” Luke 1:15.

Wine is a deceiver. “Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging: and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise.” Pro. 20:1.

Wine brings WOE (distress). “Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions? who hath babbling? who hath wounds without cause? who hath redness of eyes? They that tarry long at the wine; they that go to seek mixed wine. Look not thou upon the wine when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth itself aright. At the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder.” Pro. 23:29-32. “Woe unto them that rise up early in the morning, that they may follow strong drink: that continue until night, till wine inflame them! Woe unto them that are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength to mingle strong drink.” Isa. .5:11, 22.

The Bible forbids us to give drink to others. “Woe unto him that giveth his neighbor drink, that puttest thy bottle to him, and makest him drunken also, that thou mayest look on their nakedness! ” Hab. 2:15.

The Bible forbids drunkenness. “And be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess; but be filled with the Spirit.” Eph. 5:18.

Drunkards shall not “inherit the kingdom of God.” I Cor. 6:10. Only by being “born again”, can a drunkard be cleansed of his sin and be made ready for heaven.

Jesus Christ was not a winebibber. The Pharisees did accuse Him of being gluttonous, a winebibber and having a devil, but all three charges were false.

Jesus did not make intoxicating wine. He did turn the water into wine at the wedding feast in Cana of Galilee. The Greek word for wine is “oinos”. “Oinos is a generic word, and as such, includes an kinds of wine and an stages of the juice of the grape, and sometimes the clusters and even the vine, it is begging the whole question to assert that it was intoxicating.” Patton. If this wine that Jesus made was intoxicating, then He was guilty of putting the bottle to His neighbors lips. We cannot believe that Jesus was less separated than the Nazerites or Daniel.

Jesus did not institute the Lord’s Supper with intoxicating wine. The record of that event is recorded in Matthew 26, Mark 14 and Luke 22. Paul also refers to this event in I Cor. 10 and 11. None of the above writers even use the word wine in their account. Each one says “fruit of the vine” or “cup” when referring to that which represents the blood of Christ. (For those who are interested in more information on this subject of Bible Wines, we recommend “Bible Wines or The Laws of Ferments” by William Patton. We can furnish you this 109 page paperback book postage paid, if you send payment with the order).

Liquor is a curse to the human race and the Bible teaches against it in both the Old Testament and New Testament.

“Liquor has many defenders, but no defense.” http://www.tbaptist.com/aab/alcoholscoreboard.htm

ALKOLLE İLGİLİ OLARAK KİTAB-I MUKADDES NE DİYOR?

What Does The Bible Say About Drinking?

Although the Bible contains many instances of drinking we should remember that NONE of these were ever held up to us as examples for us to follow. The Bible and the weight of it’s authority is against the evils of alcoholic beverages. We hope and pray that after you have had an opportunity to examine these scriptures and the sobering evidence herein, you will come to recognize alcohol as the “Enemy of every Christian”. Total abstinence should be strived for!

Alcohol Facts	Scripture	Commentary
Alcohol contributes to more than 100,000 deaths yearly, making it the 3rd leading cause of preventable death in the U.S. (McGinnis & Foege, “Actual Causes of Death in the United States,” Journal of the American Medical Association {JAMA}, Vol. 270, No. 18, 11/10/93, p. 2208).	Genesis 9:20-27	The first “man of distiniction” and the tragic consequences of his alcohol abuse.
Yearly (37%) of rapes and sexual assaults involve alcohol use by the offender (US Dept. of Justice, Alcohol and Crime: An Analysis of National Data on the Prevalence of Alcohol Involvement in Crime, 4/98).	Genesis 19:30-38	Drinking contributes to Lot’s debauchery of his own daughters.
Heavy and chronic drinking depresses the immune system and predisposes one to infectious diseases, including respiratory infections, pneumonia, & tuberculosis (NIAAA, AHRW, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993, p. 176).	Leviticus 10:8-11	God commanded Aaron and his sons not to drink wine nor strong drink while serving God.
Fetal alcohol syndrome, which can occur when women drink during pregnancy, is the leading known environmental cause of mental retardation in the Western World (NIAAA, Eighth Special Report, op. cit. p.221).	Numbers 6:3	The Nazarite’s vow excluded drinking wine or other strong drink
Studies of suicide victims show that over 20% of suicide victims are alcoholic (NIAAA, AHRW, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993, p. 133).	Deuteronomy 21:20	Drinking alcohol was one of the attributes of a stubborn, rebellious and disobedient son.
More than an estimated 6.6 million children under age 18 live in households with at least one alcoholic parent (NIAAA, Alcohol Alert, No. 9, 7/90, p. 1).	Judges 13:4, 7, 14	Samson’s mother was commanded by the angel of the Lord not to drink wine or other strong drink.
41% of all traffic fatalities (the leading cause of accidental death) are alcohol-related (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety Facts, 1996);	1 Samuel 25:36-38	Nabal, an evil, drinking man was smitten ny the Lord.
Alcoholics are 5 times more likely than others to die in motor vehicle crashes (NIAAA, Eighth Special Report, op. cit., p. 233).	2 Samuel 11:13	David, by the use of strong drink, leads Uriah into a fatal trap.
4 in 10 violent crimes involve alcohol use by the offender. ( U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Alcohol and Crime,” 1998).	2 Samuel 13:28-29	Amnon, is murdered by his brothers servants while on a drinking spree.
Among violent crimes the offender is far more likely to have been drinking than under the influence of other drugs. (U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Alcohol and Crime, 1998).	1 Kings 16:8-10	Elah, King of Israel was murdered by one of his captains “While drinking himself drunk”.
Estimates suggest that alcohol is associated with between 47% and 65% of adult drownings (NIAAA, Eighth Special Report, p. 243).	1 Kings 20:13-21	Ben-hadad, the King of Syria and 32 other kings were drinking themselves drunk when a small band of Israelites fell upon the Syrians and put them to flight.
1/4th of all persons admitted to hospitals have alcohol problems or are undiagnosed alcoholics being treated for consequences of drinking (NIAAA, Eighth Special Report, op. cit., p. xi).	Esther 1:5-22	King Ahasuerus, after a week of feasting and drinking, drunkenly tries to subject Vashti, his queen, to the beastly gaze of the drunken princes and people.
2/3 of the population drink, but 10% of all drinkers drink 1/2 of all the alcohol consumed (NIAAA, Sixth Special Report to US Congress on Alcohol and Health, USDHHS, 1/87, p. 3).	Proverbs 20:1	No wise person will allow himself to be deceived by wine which is a mocker, or by strong drink which is raging.
From 1985 to 1992, the economic costs of alcoholism and alcohol-related problems rose 42% to $148 billion.(NIAAA, news release, 5/13/98).	Proverbs 21:17	Drinking Leads to Poverty
In the past decade, four times as many Americans died in drunkdriving crashes as were killed in the Vietnam War (NHTSA, 1995)	Proverbs 23:21	Admonishes to refrain from even looking upon wine.
Heavy and chronic drinking harms virtually every organ and system in the body (NIAAA, AHRW, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993, p. xxvii).	Proverbs 23:29-30	Strong drink produces sorrow, woe, contentions, babbling, wounds without cause and redness of eyes.
Heavy and chronic drinking contributes to approximately 65% of pancreatitis cases (NIAAA, AHRW, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993, p. 171).	Proverbs 23:32	At the last alcohol bites like a serpent and stings like an adder.
An association has been established in homosexual and heterosexual populations between alcohol use, and behavior that increases risks for contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases (NIAAA, Eighth Special Report, op. cit., p. 245).	Proverbs 23:33	Alcohol fills mens minds with impure and perverse thoughts.
In 1996 drinking and driving killed a human being every 31 minutes(National Highway Traffic Safety {NHTSA}, Traffic Safety Facts, 1996).	Proverbs 23:24	Alcohol brings on danger, accidents and insecurity.
4.4 million “binge” drinkers ages 12-20 (consumed 5 or more drinks in a row on a single occasion in 1996) (National Institute on Drug Abuse {NIDA}, 1996 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse).	Proverbs 23:35	Insensibility follows drinking, rendering man into a clod; and it is habit forming so that the drinker upon awakening seeks it “Yet again”.
3 million violent crimes (including rapes, robberies, sexual assaults; aggravated and simple assaults) occur each year in which the victims perceive the offender to have been drinking at the time of the offense. (U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Alcohol and Crime,” 1998).	Proverbs 31:4-5	Officials with the responsibility of human life on their hands should not imbibe.
Heavy and chronic drinking is associated with cardiovascular diseases like cardiomyopathy, hypertension, arrhythmias, and stroke(NIAAA, AHRW, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993, p. 172).	Ecclesiastes 2:3	The writer of Ecclesiastes tried strong drink but in the end admitted that this too was vanity.
Yearly (15%) of robberies involve alcohol use by the offender (US Department of Justice, Alcohol and Crime: An Analysis of National Data on the Prevalence of Alcohol Involvement in Crime, 4/98).	Ecclesiastes 10:17	That nation is blessed whose leaders eat for strength and refrain from drunkeness.
1/2 of all boating fatalities had a blood alcohol content (BAC) of .04; BAC’s of .10 or more were found in 31% of the fatalities(US Department of Transportation, United States Coast Guard, Boating Statistics 1994, 9/95).	Isaiah 5:11-12	Woe in pronounced of those who give themselves to strong drink.
Inmates convicted of murder reported alcohol was a factor in 1/2 the murders committed U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Alcohol and Crime,” 1998).	Isaiah 5:22	Further woe is pronounced upon drunkards.
Yearly, about 1.4 million incidents of alcohol-related violence are committed against strangers. ( U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Alcohol and Crime, 1998).	Isaiah 22:13	Drinking often goes with carnal living.
Heavy and chronic drinking is the single most important cause of illness and death from liver disease (alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis) (NIAAA, AHRW, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1993, p. 165).	Isaiah 28:1	A woe is pronounced upon the drunkards of Ephraim.
Alcoholics are 16 times more likely than others to die in falls, and 10 times more likely to become fire or burn victims (NIAAA, Eighth Special Report).	Isaiah 28:3	The drunkards of Ephraim are to be trodden down and destroyed.
70% of alcohol-related incidents of violence occur in the home. ( U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Alcohol and Crime, 1998).	Isaiah 28:7	Prophets and priests become incapable of spiritual leadership because of their drinking.
82% of high school seniors have used alcohol (NIDA, 1997 Monitoring the Future Study, Seconardy School Students).	Isaiah 56:12	Drinking accompanies foolish optimism and the sinner’s vain hope that his sins will not find him out.
Junior/middle and senior high school students drink 35% of all wine coolers sold in the United States; they also drink 1.1 billion cans of beer(The Centers for Disease Control {CDC}, “Alcohol and Other Drug Use Among High School Students–United States, 1990,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report {MMWR}, 11/91, p. 776).	Jeremiah 35:5-8,14,19	Reohabites who steadfastly held to total abstinence assured of God’s continued blessings.
Drivers under 25 were more likely than those over 25 to be intoxicated in a fatal crash (CDC, “Alcohol-Related Traffic Fatalities Among Youth and Young Adults – United States, 1982-1989,” MMWR, 3/91, p. 179).	Daniel 1:5, 8, 16; 10:3	Daniel, who refused to drink the king’s wine was especially blessed by the Lord.
Based on inflation and population growth, estimated economic costs of alcoholism and alcohol-related problems for 1995 totalled $166.5 billion (NIAAA, news release, 5/13/98).	Daniel 5:1-2	This is a tragic example of a king who drank and led his people to also.
Per capita arrest rates for alcohol violations (including manufacture, possession and sale of alcohol, but excluding public drunkenness and DWI offenses) are highest at public, 4 year colleges. ( U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Alcohol and Crime, 1998).	Daniel 5:3	Drinking leads to profaning sacred things.
Among the 5.3 million convicted offenders under the jurisdiction of corrections agencies in 1996, more than 36% (Approximately 2 million) were drinking at the time of the offense for which they were convicted. ( U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Alcohol and Crime, 1998).	Daniel 3:25-28	Moral degradation, of which drinking is a symptom, is ultimately punished by God.
Yearly (27%) of aggravated assaults involve alcohol use by the offender (US Department of Justice, Alcohol and Crime: An Analysis of National Data on the Prevalence of Alcohol Involvement in Crime, 4/98).	Hosea 4:10-11	Strong drink and immorality go hand in hand.
2/3 of teenagers who drink report that they can buy their own alcoholic beverages (OIG, HHS, “Youth and Alcohol: A National Survey. Drinking Habits, Access, Attitudes, and Knowledge,” Washington, DC, 6/91).	Hosea 7:5	The king, by his drinking was not only made sick, but became scornful as well.
Studies suggest that women metabolize alcohol less efficiently than men, leading to higher blood alcohol in women over a shorter period of time. This difference may make women more vulnerable than men to alcohol-induced liver damage (NIAAA, Eighth Special Report, op. cit., p. xxvi). [For more information, see NCADD’s “Use of Alcohol and Other Drugs Among Women”]	Joel 3:3	Young women were sold for the price of a drink.
Alcohol-related problems more prominent for women than men include serious reproductive and sexual dysfunctions; rapid development of dependence; more serious liver disease; victimization by others, particularly spouses; and sexual victimization ((NIAAA, Eighth Special Report, op. cit., p.275).	Amos 4:1	Dissolute women, oppressors of the poor, call for their drink.
Alcohol-related crashes cost $46.1 billion, including $5.1 billion in medical expenses in 1996. This represents 33% of all economic costs attributed to motor-vehicle crashes (The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention {CDC}, Prevention of Motor Vehicle-Related Injuries, 1997, p. 66).	Amos 6:3-6	The evil, idle rich who are given uimbibing wine were not concerned about the affliction of the poor.
Alcohol-related traffic fatalities remain a leading cause of death for teens and young adults (The Centers for Disease Control & Prevention {CDC},Prevention of Motor Vehicle-Related Injuries, p. 150).	Habakkuk 2:5	Arrogance is inflamed by drink.
30% of children in grades 4 – 6 report that they have received “a lot” of peer pressure from friends to drink beer; 31% to try marijuana; & 34% to try cigarettes (The Weekly Reader National Survey on Drugs and Alcohol, Middletown, CT, Field Publications, Spring 1995).	Habakkuk 2:15	It is wrong to lead another to drink.
Heavy and chronic drinking can lead to reduced functioning of the testes and ovaries, which results in hormone deficiency, sexual dysfunction & infertility (NIAAA, Alcohol Alert, No. 26, 11/95).	Habakkuk 2:16	Drink leads to shame and humiliation.
40% of on the job fatalities and 47% of on the job injuries can be linked to alcohol use and abuse(Bernstein & Mahoney, “Management Perspectives on Alcoholism: The Employer’s Stake in Alcoholism Treatment,” Occupational Medicine, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1989, pp. 223-232). [For more information, see NCADD’s “Alcohol and Other Drugs in the Workplace” facts.]	Matthew 24:48-51	Drinking is not consistent with alertness.
Those who murdered intimates admitted drinking the largest quantity for the longest period prior to the offense. ( U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Alcohol and Crime, 1998).	Luke 1:15	The greatness of John the Baptist is linked with his total abstinence.
Heavy and chronic drinking increases cancer risks, with an estimated 2-4% of all cancer cases believed caused directly or indirectly by alcohol abuse. (NIAAA, Alcohol Alert, No. 21, 7/93).	Luke 12:45	Christ warns against drunkenness.
Compared with drivers who have not consumed alcohol, the risk of a single-vehicle fatal crash for drivers with BACs at or above .15%, the risk is estimated to be 380 times higher. (NIAAA “Drinking and Driving,” Alcohol Alert No. 31, 1/96).	Luke 21:34	Drinking prevents men from being prepared for the judgement day.
Separated and divorced men and women were 3 times as likely as married men and women to say they had been married to an alcoholic or problem drinker (NCHS, Advance Data, op. cit., p. 6).	Romans 13:13	All are admonished to walk honestly, not in rioting and drunkeness.
Yearly (25%) of the 1.7 million lesser assaults involve alcohol use by the offender(US Dept. of Justice, Alcohol and Crime: An Analysis of National Data on the Prevalence of Alcohol Involvement in Crime, 4/98).	Romans 14:21	Christians are admonished not to drink lest a brother be caused to stumble.
In 1996 there were 1.9 million admitted heavy drinkers (those consuming 5+ drinks on the same occasion on at least 5 different days) (National Institute on Drug Abuse {NIDA}, 1996 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse).	1 Corinthians 5:11	Christians are forbidden to keep company with drunkards.
Victims are injured in 60% of alcohol-related incidents of violence. ( U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Alcohol and Crime, 1998).	1 Corinthians 6:10	No drunkard shall inherit the Kingdom of God.
In 1995 21. 5% (262,112) admitted to alcohol treatment programs were under age 24, including 18,194 under age 15(Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services, Advance Report No. 12, 2/97, p.30).	1 Corinthians 11:21	The Lord’s Supper is no time for drunkeness.
9.5 million Americans ages 12 to 20 had at least 1 drink last month (96′) (National Institute on Drug Abuse {NIDA}, 1996 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse).	Galatians 5:21	Drunkeness prevents men from inheriting the Kingdom of God.
3 out of 10 Americans will be involved in an alcohol-related crash at some time in their lives(National Highway Traffic Safety {NHTSA}, Traffic Safety Facts, 1996).	Ephesians 5:18	Christians are commanded not to be drunk with wine but to be filled with the spirit.
On an average of every 31 minutes in 1996 a human being was killed in a alcohol-related U.S. traffic fatalities(National Highway Traffic Safety {NHTSA}, Traffic Safety Facts, 1996).	1 Timothy 3:3, 8	Church leaders must be “not given to wine.”

http://www.iamnotofthisworld.com/2-Articles/7-What-Does-The-Bible-Say-About-Drinking.html

DİNLERDE YENİLMEZLER: BİR POTANSİYEL RİSK OLARAK DOMUZ ETİ (Pork- Swine- Pig- Hog)

“Müslümanlar, Yahudiler, Hinduistler, Budistler, Jainistler, Yedinci Gün Adventist Hristiyanları, Hristiyan Church Of God, Ortodoks Nasturiler, Ortodoks Kıptiler, Rus Hristiyan Malakanlar, Süryani Hristiyanlar, Doğu Ermeni Gregoryan Hristiyanlar, Essene Nazarean Church, Stewarton Bible School İskoçlar, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Christian Education, Messianic Judaism, King James Bible’ı izleyen Hristiyanlar domuz eti yemezler.”

Yeryüzündeki bütün Hristiyanlar Hz. İsa’dan önce domuz etinin haram olduğunu bilirler ve buna inanırlar.

Kur’an’da 5, Tevrat’ta 5, Zebur’da 1, İncil’de 15 yerde vurgu vardır.

“HINDUISM: and will be eating all lawful things. He will eat all sorts of animals except swine(pork).” Bhavishya Purana in the Pratisarag Parv III Khand 3 Adhay 3 Shloka 10 to 27 Maharishi Vyas

TEVRAT:

Lev.11: 7-“Domuz çatal ve yarık tırnaklıdır, ama geviş getirmez. Sizin için kirli sayılır.” Yas.14: 8-“Domuz çatal tırnaklıdır, ama geviş getirmez. Sizin için kirli sayılır. Bu hayvanların etini yemeyecek, leşine dokunmayacaksınız.” (Bk. Lev.7: 23)

Lev.10:10-“Kutsalla bayağı olanı, kirliyle temizi birbirinden ayırt etmelisiniz.”

Özd.11: 22-“Sağduyudan yoksun kadının güzelliği, Domuzun burnundaki altın halkaya benzer.”

Yşa.65: 4-“Mezarlıkta oturur, Gizli yerlerde geceler, Domuz eti yerler; Kaplarında haram et var.”

Hez.44:23-“Kutsalla bayağı arasındaki ayrımı halkıma onlar öğretecek, kirliyle temizi ayırt etmeyi onlar gösterecekler.”

İNCİL:

Elç.10: 14 “(Petrus): Hiçbir zaman bayağı ya da murdar* herhangi bir şey yemedim.”

Elç.11: 8 “‘Asla olmaz, ya Rab!’ dedim. ‘Ağzıma hiçbir zaman bayağı ya da murdar* bir şey girmedi.’

Helalı haram kılma: Elç.11:9-“…’Tanrı’nın temiz kıldıklarına sen bayağı deme’ dedi.

Elç.10:15-“…Petrus’a, “Tanrı’nın temiz kıldıklarına sen bayağı deme” dedi.

2.Ko.6: 17 Bu nedenle, “İmansızların arasından çıkıp ayrılın” diyor Rab. “Murdara* dokunmayın, Ben de sizi kabul edeceğim.”

Mat.7:6-”Kutsal olanı köpeklere vermeyin. İncilerinizi domuzların önüne atmayın. Yoksa bunları ayaklarıyla çiğnedikten sonra dönüp sizi parçalayabilirler.”

Mar.5: 13-“İsa’nın izin vermesi üzerine kötü ruhlar adamdan çıkıp domuzların içine girdiler. Yaklaşık iki bin domuzdan oluşan sürü, dik yamaçtan aşağı koşuşarak göle atlayıp boğuldu.”

Mar.7:7-“Bana boşuna taparlar. Çünkü öğrettikleri, sadece insan buyruklarıdır.’ Mar.7:8 Siz Tanrı buyruğunu bir yana bırakmış, insan töresine uyuyorsunuz.” Mar.7:9 İsa onlara ayrıca şunu söyledi: “Kendi törenizi sürdürmek için Tanrı buyruğunu bir kenara itmeyi ne de güzel beceriyorsunuz! Mar.7: 10 Musa, ‘Annene babana saygı göstereceksin’ ve, ‘Annesine ya da babasına söven kesinlikle öldürülecektir’ diye buyurmuştu.

Tit.1:11-“Onların ağzını kapamak gerek. Haksız kazanç uğruna, öğretmemeleri gerekeni öğreterek bazı aileleri tümüyle yıkıyorlar.”

KUR’AN:

2Bakara/173-“ Allah, size ancak leş, kan, domuz eti ve Allah’tan başkası adına kesileni haram kıldı. Ama kim mecbur olur da, istismar etmeksizin ve zaruret ölçüsünü aşmaksızın yemek zorunda kalırsa, ona günah yoktur. Şüphesiz, Allah çok bağışlayandır, çok merhamet edendir.”

5Maide/3-“Leş, kan, domuz eti, Allah’tan başkası adına boğazlanan, boğulmuş, (tahta veya taşla) vurul(arak öldürül)müş, yukarıdan düşmüş, boynuzlanmış ve canavar parçalayarak ölmüş olan havyanlar -henüz canları çıkmadan kestikleriniz hariç- dikili taşlar (putlar) adına boğazlanan hayvanlar ve fal oklariyle kısmet (şans) aramanız size harâm kılındı. Bunlar fısktır (insanı yoldan çıkaran kötü şeylerdir). Bugün artık inkâr edenler, sizin dininiz(i yok etmek)den umudu kesmişlerdir. Onlardan korkmayın, benden korkun! Bugün sizin için dininizi olgunlaştırdım, size ni’metimi tamamladım ve size din olarak İslâm’a râzı oldum. Kim açlıktan daralır, günâha istekle yönelmeden bunlardan yemek zorunda kalırsa ona günâh yoktur. Doğrusu, Allah bağışlayandır, esirgeyendir.”

5Maide/60-De ki: “Allah katında yeri bundan daha kötü olanı size söyleyeyim mi? Allah kim(ler)e la’net ve gazab etmiş, kimlerden maymunlar, domuz lar ve şeytâna tapanlar yapmışsa, işte onların yeri daha kötüdür ve onlar düz yoldan daha çok sapmışlardır.”

6En’am/145-“De ki: “Bana vahyolunan Kur’an’da bir kimsenin yiyecekleri arasında leş, akıtılmış kan, domuz eti -ki o şüphesiz necistir- ya da Allah’tan başkası adına kesilmiş bir (murdar) hayvandan başka, haram kılınmış bir şey bulamıyorum. Fakat istismar etmeksizin ve zaruret ölçüsünü aşmaksızın kim bunlardan yeme zorunda kalırsa yiyebilir.” Şüphesiz Rabbin çok bağışlayandır, çok merhametlidir.”

16Nahl/115-“ Allah, size ancak leş, kan, domuz eti ve Allah’tan başkası adına kesileni haram kıldı. Ama kim mecbur olur da istismar etmeksizin ve zaruret ölçüsünü aşmaksızın yemek zorunda kalırsa, şüphesiz ki Allah çok bağışlayandır, çok merhamet edendir.”

“Domuz eti dünyada en çok tüketilen et çeşitlerinden biridir. İslam hukukuna göre yönetilen ülkelerde ve İsrail‘de satılması, tüketilmesi yasalarca yasaklanmış olup, İskoç kültüründe de domuz eti yemek bir tabudur. Geçmişi M.Ö. 5000′lere dayanan, insanoğlunun en eski besin kaynaklarındandır. Yakın doğu’da ya da Çin‘de domuzların evcilleştirilmesi ile tüketilmeye başlanmıştır. Pek çok doğa koşuluna uyum sağlayabilmesi, hemen hemen her şeyi yemesi ve hızlı üremesi nedeniyle kolay bakılan domuz, yakın çağlara kadar Avrupa ve Amerika kültürlerinde bir güz yiyeceği olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Yavruların olgunlaştığı bu dönemlerde, topluca mezbahalara giden domuzlar nedeniyle fiyatlar oldukça ucuz olmaktadır.” http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domuz_eti

http://www.biblestudy.org/basicart/six-reasons-why-i-do-not-eat-pork-or-shrimp.html

http://www.biblestudy.org/cleanfood.html http://www.biblestudy.org/basicart/chrdrink.html

“WIKIPEDIA PORK

As with beef in Hinduism, pork consumption is taboo in Islam, Judaism and Adventism.

POTENTIAL HEALTH RISKS

Uncooked or untreated, the meat may harbour(barındırmak) worms(solucanlar) and latent(gizli-potansiyel) diseases. Many of these infestations(kurtçuklar) are harbored in other animals as well, such as salmonella in chicken.

Influenza (flu) is one of the most notable illnesses which pigs share with humans. However, the origin of the illness is found in a number of animals besides pigs. It is harbored in the lungs of the animal during the summer months and can affect both the animal and humans.

Consuming excessive amounts of pork may lead to gallstones and obesity; due to its high cholesterol and saturated fat content. However, this goes for all sorts of animal flesh, and pork is in fact quite lean – leaner than most other domesticated animals – as long as its protective layer of fat is removed.

The pig is the carrier of various helminths, like roundworm, pinworm, hookworm, etc. One of the most dangerous and common is Taenia solium, a type of tapeworm. Tapeworms may transplant to human intestines as well by consuming untreated or uncooked meat from pigs or other animals.

Trichinosis: Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis, or trichiniasis, is a parasitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked pork infected with the larvae of a species of roundworm Trichinella spiralis, commonly called the trichina worm. Infection was once very common, but is now rare in the developed world. From 1997 to 2001, an annual average of 12 cases per year were reported in the United States. The number of cases has decreased because of legislation prohibiting the feeding of raw meat garbage to hogs, increased commercial and home freezing of pork, and the public awareness of the danger of eating raw or undercooked pork products.

Religious bans of pork consumption: Throughout the Islamic world, as well as in Israel many countries severely restrict the importation or consumption of pork products. Examples are Iran, Mauritania, Oman, Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Pork is one of the best-known of a category of foods that are forbidden under traditional Jewish dietary law. The biblical basis for the Jewish prohibition of pork is in Leviticus 11:7.

Seventh-day Adventists likewise eat no pork.

Also for Christians & Catholics who read/follow the King James Bible will also find verses stating about not eating pork. In Leviticus 11:7 you will find that it states “And the swine(domuz), though he divide the hoof(toynak), and be clovenfooted, yet he cheweth not the cud(geviş); he is unclean to you.” Teachings of the Qur’an of Islam who follow Allah (word “God” in Arabic) say this in (surah 2:173, 5:3, 5:60, 6:145 and 16:115 and Jewish teachings follow Leviticus 11:7. also.

The Scottish pork taboo was Donald Alexander Mackenzie’s phrase for discussing an aversion to pork amongst Scots, particularly Highlanders, which he believed to stem from an ancient taboo. Several writers who confirm that there was a prejudice against pork, or a superstitious attitude to pigs, do not see it in terms of a taboo related to an ancient cult. Any prejudice is generally agreed to have been fading by 1800.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pork

“Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped Gram-negative enterobacteria that causes typhoid fever(ateşli tifo), paratyphoid fever(paratifo), and foodborne illness.[1] Salmonella species are motile and produce hydrogen sulfide. Salmonella antibodies were first found in Malawi children in research published in 2008. The Malawian researchers have identified an antibody that protects children against bacterial infections of the blood caused by Salmonella. A study of 352 children at Blantyre’s Queen Elizabeth hospital found that children up to two years old develop antibodies that aid in killing the bacteria. The researchers, quoted in the Science and Development Network, say this could lead to a possible Salmonella vaccine.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella

“Both Orthodox Jewish (Kashrut) and Islamic halal dietary laws forbid pork, making it a taboo meat. Among Christians, Seventh-day Adventists consider pork taboo, along with other foods forbidden by Jewish law. Many Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox groups also discourage pork consumption, although, with the exception of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the proscription is rarely enforced.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_restrictions_on_the_consumption_of_pork

“God has prohibited pork. There are several references even in the Bible where swine meat is prohibited. Science has associated 70 diseases with swine meat, the most dangerous being tapeworm, for which there is no cure. It causes irreparable damage to the insides of human beings. Even if a pig has been raised on a farm and its flesh is cooked very well at high temperatures, certain germs never die. The pig is a filthy animal; it eats human excreta. It has to protective instinct for its female. It is a shameless animal. Therefore people who eat its flesh, have no shame if their females mate with other men.

Hindu scriptures permit the eating of flesh. In fact, their books are replete with incidents showing festivals and ceremonies where meat was served. When Jainism and Buddhism started to become popular with their philosophies of ahimsa(canlılara zarar vermeme felsefesi), i.e., non-violence towards animals, and started to win converts from Hindus, the Hindus priests adapted the same philosophy of ahimsa to win back those who had left the Hindu fold. This is how Hinduism changed over to vegetarianism.” http://www.islamawareness.net/Islam/misconcep.html

“Domuz etinin Kuran indirildiği dönemde yenmesinin sağlığa zararlı pek çok yönleri olduğu gibi, bugün de yenmesinin sağlığa zararlı olan çeşitli yönleri vardır. Bir kere domuz, her ne kadar temiz çiftliklerde, bakımlı ortamlarda yetiştirilirse yetiştirilsin, kendi pisliğini yiyen bir hayvandır. Gerek pislikle beslenmesi gerekse biyolojik yapısı nedeniyle domuzun bünyesi diğer hayvanlara oranla çok fazla miktarlarda antikor üretir. Yine domuzun vücudunda diğer hayvanlara ve insana oranla çok yüksek dozda büyüme hormonu üretilir. Doğal olarak bu yüksek dozdaki antikorlar ve büyüme hormonu dolaşım yoluyla domuzun kas dokusuna da geçerek birikir. Bunun yanı sıra domuz eti çok yüksek oranlarda kolesterol ve lipid içerir. Bunların sonucunda tüm bu aşırı düzeydeki antikorlar, hormonlar, kolesterol ve lipidlerle yüklü olan domuz etinin insan sağlığı açısından önemli bir tehdit olduğu bilimsel olarak kanıtlanmıştır.

Bugün domuz etinin yoğun olarak tüketildiği ABD, Almanya gibi ülkelerin nüfuslarının önemli bir bölümünü oluşturan normalin çok ötesinde aşırı şişman kimselerin varlığı, artık alışılmış bir manzara olmuştur. Domuz etine dayalı bir beslenme sonucunda aşırı büyüme hormonuna maruz kalan insan bünyesi önce aşırı kilo toplamakta, sonra da vücudu deformasyonlara, şekil bozukluklarına uğramaktadır.

Bunların dışında domuz etindeki sağlığa zararlı maddelerden biri de “trişin” mikrobudur. İnsan vücuduna girdiğinde doğrudan kalp kaslarına yerleşerek ölümcül tehlike oluşturan trişin mikrobuna domuz etinde sıklıkla rastlanmaktadır. Günümüz teknolojisiyle trişinli domuzları teknik olarak tespit etmek mümkünse de önceki asırlarda böyle bir yöntem bilinmiyordu. Bu nedenle domuz eti yiyen herkes için trişin mikrobunu kapma ve ölümle karşı karşıya kalma riski vardı.

Görüldüğü gibi tüm bu sebepler domuz etinin Müslümanlara yasaklanmasının hikmetlerinden bazılarını göstermektedir. Her koşulda sağlığa zararlı etkilerini sürdüren, denetimsiz üretiminde ise ölümcül bile olabilen domuz etinin yenmesi yasaklanarak böyle bir tehlikeye karşı en başından köklü ve keskin bir önlem alınmıştır.

Allah Kuran’da, Allah’tan başkası adına kesilmiş hayvanı yemeyi de haram kıldığını belirtmiştir: “O, size ölüyü (leşi)- kanı, domuz etini ve Allah’tan başkası adına kesilmiş olan (hayvan)ı kesin olarak haram kıldı… (2Bakara Suresi, 173)

Aynı otlakta büyüyen iki sığırdan biri Allah adına kesilirse yenmesi helal, diğeri Allah’tan başkası adına kesilirse yenmesi haram olur.

Kuran’da önceki dönemlerde Yahudilere konulan, “Cumartesi günü iş yapma yasağı”nın onların imtihanı için olduğu ise şöyle bildirilmektedir:

Bir de onlara deniz kıyısındaki şehri(n uğradığı sonucu) sor. Hani onlar Cumartesi (yasağını çiğneyerek) haddi aşmışlardı. ‘Cumartesi günü iş yapma yasağına uyduklarında’, balıkları onlara açıktan akın akın geliyor, ‘cumartesi günü iş yapma yasağına uymadıklarında’ ise, gelmiyorlardı… (7Araf Suresi, 163)

Kuran’da müminler için konulan bir yasak da benzer bir hikmet, bir deneme amacı taşımaktadır. Ayetlerde şöyle buyrulmaktadır:

“Ey iman edenler, siz ihramlıyken avı öldürmeyin. Sizden kim onu kasıtlı olarak (taammüden) öldürürse, cezası, hayvandan öldürdüğünün bir benzeridir. “ (5Maide, 94-96)

Ayetlerde bu yasağın hikmeti açıkça belirtilmiştir: “.. görünmezlikte Kendisinden kimin korktuğunu ortaya çıkarmak için…” Ellerin ve mızrakların bu ava rahatlıkla erişebilmesi de bu imtihanın bir parçasıdır.

Geçici ilahî yasaklamalar da insanların tavır ve davranışlarındaki bozukluktan kaynaklanmaktadır. Ancak yasaklamada yine bir ilahî hikmet vardır:

Yahudi olanlara her tırnaklı (hayvanı) haram kıldık. Sığırlardan ve koyunlardan, sırtlarına veya bağırsaklarına yapışan veya kemiğe karışanlar dışında iç yağlarını da onlara haram kıldık. ‘Azgınlık ve hakka tecavüzde bulunmaları’ nedeniyle onları böyle cezalandırdık. (6Enam, 146)

Domuz etinin yasaklanmasının da birden fazla hikmeti vardır. İçinde yaşadığımız asra değin domuz etinin insan sağlığını doğrudan tehdit eden zararları olduğunda kuşku yoktur. Bugünkü tıbbi cihazlarla, biyolojik testlerle somut biçimde ortaya konmuş bu zarara karşı, daha kimsenin mikrop, bakteri, trişin, hormon, antikor gibi kavramlardan haberi olmadığı 7. yüzyılda indirilen Kuran’da kesin önlem alınması da aynı zamanda bu ilahi Kitabın mucizelerindendir. Bugün de domuz üretiminde alınan her türlü önlem ve denetime rağmen, domuz etinin fizyolojik olarak insan vücuduna uygun bir besin türü olmadığı, insan sağlığına kesin zararı olan bir et çeşidi olduğu bilinmektedir. Buna rağmen üretiminin kolaylığı ve maliyetinin düşüklüğü nedeniyle dünya çapında yaygın olarak tüketilmektedir. Aslında, dikkat edildiğinde domuz üretiminin bu derece cazip olmasının, geçmişte Yahudilere çalışma yasağı olan Cumartesi günü balıkların akın etmesinden farkı yoktur. Yeryüzünde kuzu, koyun, tavuk, sığır eti, sayısız kuş çeşidi, av hayvanı ve daha pek çok türde yenebilecek, son derece lezzetli hayvan eti varken Allah’ın haram kıldığı domuz etine tamah etmenin maksatlı bir tutum olacağı açıktır.

“Domuzun en çok hoşlandığı şey, kazurat(hayvan ve insan pisliği) ve necasettir. O bunlardan ne kadar men’edilse de yaratılışı gereği yine de isteklidir, bu istek kolay kolay körelmez. Başka pislik bulamadığında kendi dışkısını yiyecek kadar habaset gösterir.

Yapılan laboratuvar araştırmaları neticesinde domuz etinin her parçasında trişin (trchine) denilen öldürücü kurtçuk­ların mevcut olduğu görülmüştür. Trişinleri tamamen imha etmek çok zordur. Esasen ete bıraktığı salgı insan vücuduna tamamen zararlı bir nitelik taşır, insan bağırsaklarına intikal eden bir tek dişi trişin 1500′e yakın kurtçuk bırakır ve bu kurtçukların dişilerinden de sadır olan kurtçuklar bir hayli çoğalma kaydederek kan dolaşımı vasıtasıyla vücudun her tarafına yayılma eğilimi gösterir. Ve böylece kısa zaman­da bunun neticesi olarak vücut dokusunda bir takım iltihap­lanmalar meydana gelir, sertleşmeler olur ve insanı ölüme ka­dar götürür. Bu tip hastalığın tedavisi çok zordur.

Ayrıca domuz etindeki mevcut trişinler imha edilse bi­le etin bizatihi kendisi insan bünyesinde bir takım parazitler doğuran mikroplar taşır ve diğer taraftan hazım cihazında şid­detli ve tehlikeli iltihaplar husule getirerek ölüme sebebiyet verir.

Nitekim son yıllarda Kanada’da yapılan istatistiklere gö­re, bütün itinalara rağmen domuz etinin hayranları arasında yüzde 16-17 oranında ölüme sebebiyet verdiği anlaşılmıştır.

Yaratılışı itibariyle insan vücuduna zararlı bunca mad­deleri ihtiva eden domuz etinin hemen hemen her iklimde, bil­hassa sıcak bölgelerde daha çok zararlı olduğu müşahede olun­muştur. Bugünkü laboratuvar çalışmalarıyla bu zarar kısmen veya tamamen giderilse bile bütün dünyaya bu ameliyeyi yay­mak mümkün değildir. Kaldı ki domuz eti tamamen zararsız hale getirilemiyor. Çünkü etin kendisi insan bünyesine faydalı değildir.”

ZEHİRLİ MADDELER

Domuz eti çok yağlıdır. Yenildiği takdirde bu yağ kana geçer. Böylece kan yağ tanecikleriyle dolmuş olur. Kandaki bu fazla miktardaki yağ atar damarların sertleşmesine tansiyon yükselmesine ve kalp infarktüsüne sebep olur.

Ayrıca domuz yağı içerisinde sutoksin denilen zehirli maddeler mevcuttur. Vücuda giren bu zehirli maddelerin dışarı atılması için. Lenf bezlerinin fazla çalışmaları icap eder. Bu durum bilhassa çocuklarda lenf düğümlerinin iltihaplanması ve şişmesi şeklinde kendini gösterir. Hasta çocuğun boğaz bölgesi anormal bir şekilde şişerek adeta domuza benzer. Bu sebeple bu hastalığa domuz hastalığı (skrofuloz) adı verilir. Hastalığın ilerlemesi halinde bütün lenf bezleri cerahatlenerek şişer. Ateş yükselir, ağrı başlar ve tehlikeli bir durum ortaya çıkar.

Fazla miktarda kükürt: Domuz etinde bol miktarda bulunan sümüksü bağ dokusu kükürt yönünden çok zengindir. Bu sayede vücuda fazla miktarda kükürt alınmış olur. Bu fazlalıksa; kıkırdak, kas ve sinirlere oturarak eklemlerde iltihaplanma, kireçlenme ve bel fıtığı gibi hastalıklara yol açar.

Domuz eti devamlı yenilirse vücuttaki sert kıkırdak maddesinin yerini, domuzdan geçen bağ dokusu alır. Bunun sonucu olarak, kıkırdak yumuşar; vücut ağılığına tahammül edemeyerek altında ezilir. Böylece, eklemlerde bozulmalar meydana gelir.

Domuz eti yiyenlerin elleri pelteleşir, yağ tabakaları teşekkül eder. Mesela yiyen kimse sporcuysa; tembel ve az hareketli olur. Bazı futbolcular bu sebeple mesleklerinden olmuşlardır.

Aşırı büyüme: Domuzda, büyüme hormonu da çok fazladır. Doğduğu zaman 600-700 veya daha fazla gram olan domuz yavrusu 6 ayda 100 kiloya erişir. Bu kadar süratli gelişme, büyüme hormonunun fazlalığı sebebiyledir.

Domuz etiyle fazla miktarda alınan büyüme hormonu vücutta doku şişliklerine ve iltihaplanmalara yol açar. Burun, çene, el ve ayak kemiklerinin anormal şekilde büyümesine ve vücudun aşırı bir şekilde yağlanmasına sebep olur.

Büyüme hormonunun en etkili yönü, kanserin gelişmesine zemin hazırlamasıdır. Nitekim domuz kesim işiyle uğraşanlar, erkek domuzların belli bir yaştan sonra mutlaka ”kansere” yakalandıklarını bilimsel ve kişisel verilerle ifade ederler.

Deri hastalıkları: Domuz etinin ihtiva ettiği histamin ve imtidazol denilen maddeler, deride kaşıntı hissi uyandırır. Ekzama, dermatit, nörodermatit gibi iltihabi deri hastalıklarına zemin hazırlar.

Bu maddeler ayrıca; kan çıbanı, apandisit, safra yolları hastalıkları, toplardamar iltihapları gibi hastalıklara yakalanma ihtimalini arttırır. Bu sebeple doktorlar, kalp hastalarına kesinlikle domuz eti yememelerini kesinlikle tavsiye ederler.

Domuz eti ve trişin: Domuz eti ile insana bulaşan tehlikeli hastalıklardan birisi de trişin hastalığıdır. Domuzlar bu hastalığı trişinli fare veya trişinli domuz eti ile beslenmekle alırlar. Fakat trişin, domuzlarda ağır bir hastalık yapmaz. Hâlbuki insanlarda, çok tehlikeli ve öldürücü bir hastalık meydana getirir.

Domuz etiyle alınan trişin kurtçuklar, mide-barsak yoluyla kana geçer. Böylece de, bütün vücuda yayılırlar. Trişin kurtçukları özellikle çene, dil, boyun, yutak ve göğüs bölgelerindeki kas dokularına yerleşirler. Çiğneme, konuşma ve yutma adalelerinde felçler meydana getirirler. Yine kan damarlarında tıkanıklığa, menenjit ve beyin iltihabına sebep olurlar. Bazı ağır vakalar ölümle sonuçlanır. Bu hastalığın en kötü taraflarından birisi de kesin bir tedavi şeklinin olmamasıdır.

Trişin hastaları bilhassa Avrupa ve Hristiyan ülkelerinde aşırı bir şekilde yaygındır. Sıkı veteriner kontrolleri yapılmasına rağmen, İsveç, İngiltere, Polonya’da trişin salgınları fazla miktarda görülmektedir.

Yurdumuzda yerli Hıristiyanların dışında hiçbir Müslümanda trişin hastalığı görülmemiştir. Çünkü ülkemizde Hıristiyanlar dışında kimse domuz eti yememektedir.” Merak Ettiklerimiz 1 (Prof. Dr. Adem Tatlı)”

“Hayvanlar paraziter enfeksiyonlar için önemli bir kaynaktır. G lamblia kedi ve köpeklerde de bulunmaktadır. İnsanlarda hastalık yapan en büyük protozoon olan Balantidium coli ve bir nematod olan Trichinella spiralis özellikle domuzlardan geçmektedir. Cryptosporidium’un insanlarda hastalık etkeni olarak tanımlanmadan önce sığır, koyun, kedi, köpek, geyik tavşan gibi pek çok hayvanda bulunduğu ve bu hayvanlarda ölümcül ishal nedeni olduğu bilinmektedir.

Trichinella spiralis enfeksiyonunda, enfekte domuz etinin yenmesinden sonraki ilk hafta içinde parazitin erişkin hali ve barsağa yayılan larva formları enflamatuvar enterite neden olur. Bulantı, kusma, karın ağrısı ve ishal görülür. Periorbital ödem, miyozit ve eozinofili hastalık için tipiktir. (Sürekli Tıp Eğitimi Dergisi http://www.ttb.org.tr/STED/)

BOOKS: The Maker’s Diet by Dr. Jordan S. Rubin and Garden of Life

The Great Physician’s Rx for Health and Wellness by Jordan Rubin

Natural Cures They Don’t Want You To Know About by Kevin Trudeau

YILLIK DÜNYA SAĞLIK RAPORU VE DOMUZ ETİ

World yearly stats:

-World deaths from Cancer: 6 to 8 million people per year: See causes STDs & Bad food: Pork.
-World deaths from Heart/Cardiovascular Disease: 6 to 7 million people per year: See cause STDs and Bad food: Pork.
–World deaths from Clamydia, Syphilis, Gonorrhea, HPV: Causes See: Cancer and Heart/Cardiovascular diseases
–World deaths from poor sanitation=filthy diseased water and poor hygiene:
~Diarrhea (ishal) (bacterias, viruses etc.) 4 million per year out of 2 billion infected
~Malaria (sıtma) 3 million per year out of 500 million infected
~Schistosomiasis (parazit-bakteri) 1 million per year out of 600 million infected
~Misc. Other water/sanitation caused 500,000 to 1 million out of billions affected
–World deaths from Tuberculosis 3 million of the 8 million infected per year -bacterial close contact transmission.
–World deaths from HIV/Aids 3 million of the 4-5 million infected per year -Cause STD.
–World deaths of children from birth defects 3 million out of the 8 million born with serious defects: See STDs.
–World deaths of children from Abortion 46 million: Causes from STD deluded sick minds
–World deaths from prescribed drugs and bad medicine 7 to 10 million people per year to mask/treat STD & Pork caused disease
(More world wide deaths and complications from prescribed drugs than illegal drugs!)

U.S. yearly stats:
–U.S. deaths from Cancer: 600,000 to 700,000 people per year: See causes STDs & Bad food: Pork.
–U.S. deaths from Heart Disease: 600,000 to 700,000 people per year: See causes STDs & Bad food: Pork.
–U.S. deaths from prescribed drugs and bad medicine 750,000 + people per year.
(More U.S. deaths and complications from from prescribed drugs than illegal drugs!)

Nearly all deaths, sickness and birth defects are the results of STDs and toxic ingestion.

ALL are PREVENTABLE! http://www.healthysecrets.com/health_news/topics/sickness_diseases.html

SAĞLIK BÜLTENİ-Health issues

Pigs harbour a range of parasites and diseases that can be transmitted to humans. These include trichinosis, Taenia solium, cysticercosis, and brucellosis. Pigs are also known to host large concentrations of parasitic ascarid worms in their digestive tract.[1]The presence of these diseases and parasites is one of the reasons why pork meat should always be well cooked or cured before eating. Some religious groups that consider pork unclean refer to these issues as support for their views.[2]

Pigs are susceptible to bronchitis and pneumonia. They have small lungs in relation to body size; for this reason, bronchitis or pneumonia can kill a pig quickly.

Pigs can be aggressive and pig-induced injuries are relatively common in areas where pigs are reared or where they form part of the wild or feral fauna.[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig

DOMUZ ETİ VE HEPATİT E

Hepatitis E Virus Antibody Prevalence among Persons Who Work with Swine

Prevalence of antibody and risk factors to hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection were determined in a cross-sectional study of 2 group-matched populations: swine farmers (n = 264) and persons without occupational exposure to swine (n = 255) in Moldova, a country without reported cases of hepatitis E. The prevalence of HEV infection was higher among swine farmers than among the comparison group (51.1% vs. 24.7%; prevalence ratio, 2.07; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.62-2.64). In multivariate analysis, HEV infection was associated with an occupational history of cleaning barns or assisting sows at birth (odds ratio [OR], 2.46; 95% CI, 1.52-4.01), years of occupational exposure (OR, 1.04 per year; 95% CI, 1.01-1.07), and a history of drinking raw milk (OR, 1.61; 95% CI, 1.08-2.40). HEV infection was not associated with civilian travel abroad or having piped water in the household. The increased prevalence of HEV infection among persons with occupational exposure to swine suggests animal-to-human transmission of this infection.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is a major cause of viral hepatitis in many developing countries. Areas in which large outbreaks of hepatitis E have occurred (e.g., the Indian subconti-nent, China, Central Asia, and Africa) have been considered to be endemic for this infection, whereas areas where only sporadic cases have been reported (e.g., Turkey, the United States, and the United Kingdom) have been considered to be nonendemic [1].

Transmission of HEV infection during outbreaks primarily occurs from contaminated water [1–3]. However, unlike other enterically transmitted infections, person-to-person transmis-sion of HEV appears to occur infrequently [4], low rates of infec

tion occur between epidemics, and the reservoir for infection is unknown.

HEV infection has been demonstrated in swine, rodents, and sheep [1,5], and an HEV that is closely related to human HEV was identified among pigs in the United States [1]. We report the results of a cross-sectional study conducted in Moldova, an area that is not endemic for hepatitis E, to assess whether close contact with swine is a risk factor for HEV infection. (University of Chicago Pres Volume: 27S3 • September 2001) http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/324566?cookieSet=1

DOMUZ ETİ VE SİROZ

Relationship between pork consumption and cirrhosis. Nanji AA, French SW.

An investigation of the relationship between per-caput consumption of total fat, beef, and pork in several countries and mortality rates for cirrhosis showed a correlation between alcohol consumption and cirrhosis mortality of 0.64 (p less than 0.01), and a correlation between pork consumption and cirrhosis mortality of 0.40 (p less than 0.05). The correlation between cirrhosis mortality and the product of both alcohol and pork consumption was highly significant (r = 0.98, p less than 0.001). In countries with low alcohol consumption, no correlation was obtained between alcohol consumption and cirrhosis. However, a significant correlation was obtained between cirrhosis and pork. A similar relationship was seen in the ten Canadian provinces, where there was no correlation between cirrhosis mortality and alcohol consumption, but a significant correlation was obtained with pork. (National Center for Biotechnology Information U.S. National Library of Medicine) Lancet. 1985 March http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2858627?dopt=Abstract

DOMUZ ETİNDEN 38 ÖLÜ, 1857 HASTA

Poisonous pork kills 38, makes 1857 sick

Widodo said it was unlikely that the residents had died of water poisoning because they had always used the same water sources. (Sydney Morning Herald in Australia) AFP January 29, 2004

MOZART DOMUZ ETİNDEN ÖLDÜ

Pork chop ‘killed Mozart’

Mozart: Death was put down to “severe miliary fever” Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was killed by eating pork, a new report suggests.

The world famous Austrian composer, who died in 1791, showed the symptoms of a disease caused by eating badly-cooked pork infected by a worm, an American doctor has said.

Mozart’s symptoms, including a fever, rash, limb pain and swelling, match those brought on by trichinosis, according to Dr Jan V Hirschmann of Seattle’s Puget Sound Veterans Affairs Medical Center.

His death was put down to a “severe miliary fever” at the time, and no autopsy was carried out.

Letter

Previous theories about what killed the composer, who died aged 35, include rheumatic fever, kidney stones, heart disease, pneumonia and poisoning.

There have also been suggestions of foul play concerning rival composer Antonio Salieri.

But Dr Hirschmann points to a letter Mozart wrote to his wife 44 days before he fell ill.

“What do I smell?… pork cutlets! Che Gusto (What a delicious taste). I eat to your health,” he wrote.

Trichinosis has an incubation period of about 50 days, says Dr Hirschmann, who is an infectious disease specialist.

His eight-page report is based on details from medical literature, historical documents and biographies.

Dr Hirschmann admitted that not being able to be proved wrong “makes it much more enjoyable to speculate”.

Theories

Mozart’s grave was dug up seven years after his death so it could be reused, and his remains were dispersed.

Dr Faith Fitzgerald, Davis professor of music at the University of California, last year put forward the theory that Mozart died of rheumatic fever.

She said there were about 150 different theories about the cause of the composer’s death.

“It does strike me as somewhat strange the investment people have in something that is virtually unknowable,” she said. Doctors like to speculate on the composer’s death because “it’s fun and because it’s Mozart,” Dr Fitzgerald said. (Monday, 11 June, 2001) http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1382537.stm

DOMUZ HASTALIĞI KOLOMBİYAYI VURDU

Pig disease hits Colombia

A pig is often a family’s only source of income By the BBC’s Richard Collings

A potentially lethal tapeworm infestation of pigs is on the rise in Colombia.

Anyone eating contaminated pork can become the carrier of a parasite whose larvae attack the central nervous system and the brain.

Demand for pork has fallen dramatically, leaving thousands of farmers virtually penniless but shops are still selling contaminated meat.

The government has few resources to tackle the disease and environmental and health campaigners have now launched initiatives to improve basic hygiene, one reason for the spread of the disease.

Hidden problem

Thousands of people are now thought to be carrying the parasite

Thousands of people in Colombia are now thought to be carrying the cysticercosis tapeworm parasite.

The highest number of life-threatening cases is in the Narino province, where hospitals are crowded with sufferers.

There are now 30,000 registered epileptics in south west Colombia, but it is estimated that several thousand more incidences of infection caused by eating contaminated pork go unreported every year.

Recent studies show that 40% of patients diagnosed with epilepsy in the south west have eaten contaminated pork, which has often been undercooked.

In many cases, the disease leads to a slow and agonising death.

Worldwide, the disease is estimated to effect 50 million people. Endemic areas include Colombia, Mexico, sub-Saharan Africa, India and East Asia.

Family asset

In Colombia, a family’s prize possession is very often its pig.

Cysticercosis

It is estimated the disease affects 50m people worldwide Endemic areas include Colombia, Mexico, India and East Asia

Pigs live with families in their back yards and often share the same sanitary arrangements.

A hole in the ground doubles up as the toilet for animals and humans alike.

Dr Fernando Sanzon of Colombia’s Narino University, who is spearheading the campaign to eradicate the cysticercosis disease, believes it is a question of educating farmers about basic hygiene.

He is concerned that the Colombian government, fighting a 40-year war against left-wing guerrillas, does not have enough money to spend on measures to eradicate the disease.

This year it has invested $10,000 in public awareness campaigns – a fraction of what is needed compared to the magnitude of the problem.

To date, only modest sums have been spent on research.

Environmental campaign

It is environmental and not health campaigners who have devised a novel scheme to improve basic hygiene.

One group gives people help with home improvements.

But in return farmers have to plant hundreds of trees before they are given new hand washing and toilet facilities.

Ana Cecilia Rosas, spokeswoman for the environmental group, says farmers have been willing to do this in the absence of any government initiatives.

But she voices concern at the lack of similar campaigns in the rest of the country where no work has yet been done to combat the tapeworm parasite in pigs. (Friday, 30 November, 2001, 10:44 GMT)http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1683646.stm

Pork recalled in Hong Kong while authorities battle to control yet another outbreak of disease

Disease/Infection News

The media in Hong Kong have reported over 1,270 kilograms of pork has been recalled in the southern city of Shenzhen.

China, which is battling yet another outbreak of disease, has been battling to contain an outbreak of swine flu since last month.

To date the pig-borne disease, caused by the Streptococcus suis bacteria, has infected more than 200 people in China’s southwest province of Sichuan and killed 39.

The outbreak has killed around 650 pigs in Sichuan, but instead of disposing them, many poor farmers ate and even sold them.

It appears that all those who contracted the disease in Sichuan had slaughtered, handled or eaten infected pigs.

On Saturday authorities began recalling the batch of pork, which originated from central Henan province, from two Shenzhen markets.

Local media reported the move but it has not been explained why the meat was being recalled.

Authorities in Hong Kong, which is just south of Shenzhen, have said they are contacting health authorities in China for comment on the reports.

Apparently officials in Shenzhen have posted notices at housing estates which promise to refund residents who surrender pork that they bought from the two markets.

It is also claimed that those who had already eaten the meat were ordered to register their names, but were not told why.

Although the outbreak was first reported in June, it did not surface in the Chinese media until almost a month later.

Streptococcus suis, or swine flu, is endemic in most pig-rearing countries, but human infections are rare.

China’s state media have said repeatedly, that no human-to-human infections have been found in Sichuan, but by any standards, the infection rate and death toll is considered unusually high, and some experts have questioned that it is indeed swine flu.

The outbreak has made residents in nearby Hong Kong extremely nervous, particularly because three infections have been reported there since the outbreak in mainland China began, and apparently none of those affected had been to China recently.

China has suspended exports of Sichuan pork to Hong Kong, and sales of pork, which is China’s most popular meat, have fallen sharply. (Published: Monday, 15-Aug-2005- News-Medical.Net) http://www.news-medical.net/?id=12475

INTERNAL PARASITES

(490) These must all use nutrients from the host to multiply and survive. They are found in the digestive tract, the kidneys, liver, lungs or the blood stream. There are four groups; nematodes (roundworms), thorny-headed worms, tapeworms and protozoa. (Fig.11-1).

The location of the different worms are shown in Fig.11-2)

The sites where the different parasites are found

Controlling parasites requires an understanding of their life cycle. Procedures can then be adopted that together with anthelmintics, break this cycle and thus prevent re-infection. There are two types of life cycle, a direct one and an indirect one.

The Direct Life Cycle

(491) This is depicted in Fig.11-3. The adult worm lays its eggs in the intestine and they are passed out in the faeces onto the ground. The eggs then develop through larval stages, but only the last stage can infect a pig and develop into an adult worm. Some larvae(ascarids and lungworm) enter the digestive tract and migrate through the liver to the lungs before they complete their cycle.

The Indirect Life Cycle

(492) This requires an intermediate host as shown in Fig.11-4. It commences as a direct cycle with the eggs leaving the pig with the first stage larvae developing. The egg containing the larva is eaten by a second host such as an earth worm or a beetle, where it undergoes a further two larval stages before finally becoming infective to the pig. The pig then eats the intermediate host and thus the cycle of reinfection is completed. An indirect cycle always requires another host for development before the larva can infect the pig. Removing or preventing access to the host breaks the cycle of infection.

The length of each cycle is dependent on the temperature and humidity of the environment. Eggs and larvae do not develop in cold conditions and most die in very dry conditions. This survival time outside the pig is important in controlling continuing infections. It also takes a number of days for the larva to develop inside the egg to the infectious stage. If faeces are removed from the environment before this development has been completed then the cycle is broken. The period of time taken for the larva inside the pig to mature to an egg laying adult is called the prepatent period. Fig.11-5 shows the prepatent periods and also the time of survival of the eggs and larvae in the environment.

Recognising a Worm Problem

(493) This is carried out by collecting faeces samples from different ages of pigs and examining them for the presence of worm eggs. 25g samples should be taken from the following animals:- 5 lean dry sows, 5 lean suckling sows, 5 separate samples from weaner faeces at 12 weeks of age and 5 separate samples from finishing pigs at 90kg. These are then submitted to a laboratory for examinations.

A 2g portion of each sample is washed through a sieve with saturated salt or zinc sulphate solution and a small amount of this liquid containing worm eggs is flooded into a glass chamber of a known size. The top of the chamber is then examined microscopically as the eggs float to the surface and the numbers of the different eggs are counted (Fig.11-6). The levels per g of faeces are then calculated.

Worms of one kind or another are almost always present in commercial pig herds. Low numbers are no problem but large numbers can cause tissue damage with malfunction of the body systems that are damaged and loss of condition. It can be difficult to assess the significance of a parasite burden but the following procedures may be adopted.

Step 1

Assess the body condition, growth rates and clinical symptoms of the group of pigs

Coughing – consider lungworm but only if the environment could give access to earth worms or beetles. Ascarid larvae as they migrate through the lungs can increase the incidence of pneumonia and coughing.

Wasting – round worms, coccidia, kidney worms or Balantidium coli.
Blood in the urine – kidney worms. Blood in the faeces – coccidiosis, trichuris infection.
Anaemic pigs – stomach worms.

Step 2

Assess the type of environment and the way it could maintain parasites. Look at the ages of the pigs affected.

Step 3

Assess post-mortem and slaughter house information for evidence of parasites in the following organs:

Liver damage / milk spot – ascarids, kidney worms

The kidney – kidney worms


The stomach – stomach worms

The intestine – ascarids, nodular worms

The large bowel – nodular worms, whipworms, balantidia

Muscle – muscle worms

Step 4

Assess the results of the faeces examinations. The egg output each day is variable and the results must be interpreted by assessing all samples, together with the types of worm eggs, their numbers (Fig.11-7) and the clinical picture. The output of eggs also varies in the sow with the stage of reproduction, with increased outputs of eggs during lactation. Never make a diagnosis on egg counts alone. Judge their significance by Steps 1, 2 and 3.

http://www.thepigsite.com/pighealth/article/407/internal-parasites

FLORİDA UNİVERSİTESİ –DOMUZ ETİ

AS50—– UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA— IFAS EXTENSION

Controlling Internal Parasites in Swine 1

R. O. Myer and W. R. Walker2

1. This document is AS50, one of a series of the Animal Science Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural

Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date March 1990. Reviewed June 2003. Visit the EDIS Web Site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.

2. R. O. Myer, Associate Professor, Agricultural Research and Education Center, Marianna; W. R. Walker, Associate Professor and Extension Swine

Specialist, Department of Animal Science, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville,

32611. The use of trade names in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information. It is not a guarantee or warranty of the products named, and does not signify that they are approved to the exclusion of others of suitable composition. All chemicals should be used in accordance with directions on the manufacturer’s label.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Employment Opportunity – Affirmative Action Employer authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. For information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension Service office. Florida Cooperative Extension Service / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences / University of Florida / Larry R. Arrington, Interim Dean

Swine internal parasites (worms) are estimated to cost 250 million dollars annually in the United States but they are not considered to be swine killers. Internal parasites devitalize pigs by robbing them of essential nutrients and injuring vital organs. Pigs heavily parasitized are more susceptible to diseases such as scours and pneumonia. The resulting diseases and unthriftiness are a major cause of economic loss.

Swine producers should be aware of the common internal parasites of swine and methods of prevention and control.

Common internal parasites

Roundworms ( Ascarids ) . An adult female ascarid produces thousands of eggs daily. These pass out in the feces and, under favorable conditions of adequate moisture and warm temperature, become infective in 3 to 4 weeks or more. A protective shell resists adverse environmental conditions, enabling the eggs to remain alive for 5 years or longer.

Consequently, infective eggs are abundant on hog lots, pastures and other places contaminated by droppings of infected hogs. When pigs swallow infective eggs, the larvae (young worms) emerge from the eggs in the intestinal tract and migrate through the liver, lungs and other tissues. Migration of roundworm larvae through the lungs may lead to pneumonia and coughing. These larvae eventually return to the intestine where they mature and become prolific egg layers. Roundworm infestation results in decreased feed efficiency, lowered growth rates and condemnation of livers.

Nodular worms ( Oesophagostomum ) .

Nodular worms also inhabit the intestinal tract causing intestinal damage and unthriftiness in pigs. Eggs pass out in the feces and hatch on the ground. The larvae develop over an extended period and are ingested by the pig. They burrow into the intestinal wall and develop within nodules in the wall of the intestine before re-entering the intestinal tract where they mature.

Intestinal threadworms (Strongyloides ) .

Threadworms are another inhabitant of the intestinal tract. Their eggs pass out in the feces and hatch within a few hours under favorable conditions. This parasite can also multiply outside the animal host, can be transmitted from the sow to the pig before birth (prenatal infection), can be transmitted Controlling Internal Parasites in Swine 2 through the colostrum and is capable of penetrating unbroken skin. As a result, mature threadworms have been detected in baby pigs as early as 4 days old. The resulting yellowish diarrhea and possible death loss in baby pigs can be a difficult problem. In fact, numerous deaths of baby pigs in Florida have been caused by this internal parasite.

Whipworms ( Trichuris ) . Whipworms are common internal parasites of swine. Eggs passed with the feces develop into infective larvae in the environment in about a month. The larvae are ingested and penetrate the intestinal wall, damaging tissue, robbing the pig of essential nutrients, and causing diarrhea. Pigs infected with whipworms are also prone to other intestinal infections such as salmonellosis and swine dysentery. Whipworm infestations can be particularly devastating in young pigs (3 months old or less).

Kidney worms . The kidney worm is one of the most damaging parasites. The mature kidney worm is about 1 inch long and can be found in or around the kidney or along the tubes leading from the kidney to the bladder. The adult female produces eggs that are passed through the urine. Swine are infected by ingestion of the eggs. The young larvae will migrate into the liver and cause considerable damage before migrating on to the kidney where the larvae will mature. Unlike other parasites, the life cycle of this parasite is quite long, a total of 15 months. The kidney worm is a problem primarily in the southeastern USA.

Lungworms . The adult lungworm produces eggs in the lungs which are coughed up, swallowed and pass out in the feces. Earth worms ingest the eggs and become infected. Pigs may root up and swallow earth worms containing the infective stage of the parasite. Lung infection then occurs and considerable lung damage and pneumonia can result.

Other internal parasites . Several other parasites are also of importance in swine. These include coccidia, thorny-headed worms, stomach worms and trichina (from raw or improperly cooked garbage).

Treatment and control. Control is aimed at reducing infection and minimizing their detrimental effects. Although several chemical deworming agents are available, cleanliness and general good management must be practiced to minimize losses. A combination of good management and sanitation plus proper use of deworming agents will most effectively control internal parasites of swine.

Sanitation and management recommendations Management . Management should be aimed at breaking the cycle of the parasite. Most parasite eggs and larvae persist and thrive in warm weather with plentiful moisture. They are destroyed by direct sunlight and drying. However, pastures and lots can remain infective for years because parasite eggs are protected by layers of soil and manure. Mud holes and shade encourages parasite survival, thus, land and lot rotation is of some value in parasite control. Confinement rearing on slatted floors or concrete is also of practical value, especially if good sanitation is practiced.

Sanitation . Sanitation is of definite value in controlling parasites, as well as to prevent other diseases of swine. Thorough cleaning that removes the parasite eggs from the environment plus disinfection of pens between use is of real value. Hot lye solution, saponated solutions of cresol, sodium orthophenylphenate, organic iodide or iodophors, and fumigation with formaldehyde gas are satisfactory disinfectants if preceded by mechanical cleaning with the use of a detergent solution or steam cleaner. The following sanitation and management practices are recommended:

1. Wash sows with a mild soap solution and rinse with a mild antiseptic solution immediately before placing them in the farrowing house. Give special attention to the udder and feet.

2. Keep farrowing pens clean and free of manure to prevent exposure of baby pigs to large numbers of worm eggs and parasite larvae. Controlling Internal Parasites in Swine 3

3. Avoid using permanent pastures or dirt lots. If temporary pastures are not available, rotate permanent pastures yearly or renovate pastures periodically.

4. Use well-drained areas for lots and pastures. Avoid formation of mud holes. Avoid overstocking lots and pastures.

5. Provide adequate nutrition to minimize the effect of parasitism and to reduce the tendency of pigs to search and root for food.

6. Pigs raised on concrete have some advantage over those raised on dirt particularly if regular cleaning and sanitation practices are followed.

7. Do not feed raw or improperly cooked garbage or table scraps to swine (to prevent trichinosis).

Diagnosis of internal parasites

Internal parasites can be diagnosed by clinical signs, necropsy and examinations of feces for eggs. Clinical signs include poor feed efficiency, unthrifty appearance, coughing, pneumonia, diarrhea and death. However, many hogs may be heavily parasite-infected and appear normal.

Depending on the parasite species, adult parasites can be observed in the intestinal tract, lungs or kidneys at postmortem. Migrating larvae of roundworms (Ascarids) and kidney worms cause scars or white spots on the liver. These can be observed during necropsy of young pigs or at the time market hogs are slaughtered.

Deworming and control recommendations. For practically all swine producers in Florida, regular deworming of pigs and sows is needed to control common internal parasites of swine. Roundworms, nodular worms, strongyloides (threadworms), whipworms, lungworms and kidney worms cause problems in Florida swine. Several good deworming agents are available but vary in their effectiveness against specific parasites. No individual dewormer is effective against all species of parasites. Some dewormers, however, are fairly effective against many species and these are often referred to as broad spectrum dewormers. Deworming agents and their effectiveness are described in Table 1 .

Piperazine is inexpensive, effective against adult roundworms and moderately effective against nodular worms. It is administered in feed and water.

Hygromycin B has value as an aid in control of whipworms, nodular worms and roundworms and is used as a feed additive to be fed continuously.

Dichlorvos (Atgard) is effective against roundworms, nodular worms and whipworms and is a good dewormer to use in sows 1 and 2 weeks before placing them in the farrowing house. It is used only in feed.

Levamisole (Tramisol) is effective against kidney worms, lungworms, roundworms and nodular worms. This dewormer is administered in feed or water.

Pyrantel (Banmith) is effective against roundworms and nodular worms and is used only in feed either as a one-time dewormer or it can be fed continuously.

Thiabendazole (TBZ) paste is the dewormer approved for use against threadworms (Strongyloides) in baby pigs.

Fenbendazole (Safe-guard) is effective against roundworms, nodular worms, stomach worms, whipworms, kidney worms and lungworms. This dewormer is mixed with feed and fed for three consecutive days.

Ivermectin (Ivomec) is unique in that this dewormer is injected. Ivermectin dewormer is rather expensive but is also effective against lice and mange. This dewormer is particularly useful in deworming sows.

Parasite control program: Parasite control programs vary with the individual farm. In general, farms can be separated into confinement or pasture (dirt lot) operations. Pigs raised on pasture or in dirt lots where reinfection is inevitable will need a more rigorous control program than pigs raised on slotted floors. Confinement systems with dirty solid concrete floors are no different from a pasture lot and should be considered contaminated with worm eggs. In a parasite control program, sows and gilts should be dewormed with dichlorvos, fenbendazole, ivermectin or levamisole 1 to 2 weeks before entering the farrowing house. Sows and gilts should also be washed prior to entering the farrowing house to get rid of worm eggs on their bodies. If threadworms Controlling Internal Parasites in Swine 4 (strongyloides) are a problem in small pigs, thiabendazole paste should be used at 5 days of age and repeated at 10 days of age. When pigs reach 6 to 8 weeks of age, they should be dewormed with dichlorvos, levamisole, fenbendazole or pyrantel. Deworming again in 30 days using a different dewormer is advantageous in particular if pigs are raised on dirt. Please follow the manufacturer’s directions regarding the use of deworming agents . Monitoring of the internal parasite problem in the herd is recommended. Fecal samples can be collected and examined by a veterinarian or diagnostic laboratory at regular intervals. Discussion of the problem with a veterinarian or extension livestock specialist is desirable to adopt the most effective program for the herd. Management practices to prevent parasite infections and sound nutrition programs are important control measures in addition to use of chemical deworming agents.

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/AN/AN03900.pdf

DÜNYA SAĞLIK ÖRGÜTÜ VE DOMUZ ETİ

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

FIFTY-SIXTH WORLD HEALTH ASSEMBLY A56/10

Provisional agenda item 14.2 6 March 2003

Control of neurocysticercosis-Report by the Secretariat

BACKGROUND

1. Cysticercosis of the central nervous system (neurocysticercosis) is caused by the larval stage (cysticerci) of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium. The two-host life cycle of this tapeworm comprises human beings as definitive hosts and swine as intermediate hosts. Pigs become infected when they ingest human faeces containing T. solium eggs, which develop in the muscle and brain into cysticerci.

When people eat undercooked pork containing viable cysticerci, they develop an intestinal tapeworm infection, but not cysticercosis of the central nervous system. Human beings can also become intermediate hosts, however, by directly ingesting T. solium eggs shed in the faeces of human carriers of the parasite. These eggs then develop into cysticerci which migrate mostly into muscle (causing cysticercosis) and into the central nervous system where the cysticerci can cause seizures and many other neurological symptoms (cysticercosis of the central nervous system). Both these forms of human cysticercosis are therefore human-to-human infections acquired by the faeco-oral route in areas with poor hygiene and sanitation. Such a route of transmission is strongly supported by the concentration of cases of cysticercosis of the central nervous system in communities with human carriers of Taenia, which clustering also supports the argument that carriers of Taenia are potent sources of contagion.

2. Cysticercosis of the central nervous system is the most important neurological disease of parasitic origin in humans. It causes serious morbidity and in areas where T. solium is endemic, is known to be a leading cause of epilepsy, which has profound social, physical and psychological consequences. A study in southern India, reported in 2000, found an association between cysticercosis of the central nervous system and localization-related symptomatic epilepsy in 51% of patients.

Conversely, a study in Honduras reported in 1999 showed that when a diagnosis of cysticercosis of the central nervous system had been made, seizures were the presenting symptom in 52% of cases. In Ecuador, about 10% of all cases of epilepsy, and 25% of those attributable to a particular identifiable event, were due to cysticercosis of the central nervous system. Studies in Burundi and South Africa have shown that this latter proportion can be as high as 50% in certain areas. The diagnosis of cysticercosis of the central nervous system involves the interpretation of non-specific clinical manifestations, such as seizures, often with characteristic findings on computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging of the brain, and the use of specific serological tests. Diagnostic criteria based on objective clinical, imaging, immunological and epidemiological data have been proposed for different levels of the health care system, but are not generally used in areas endemic for the disease.

Affected people in resource-poor areas therefore generally have limited access to adequate clinical care. There is also no consensus on whether all cases of cycticercosis of the central nervous system benefit from cestocidal treatment with its associated sophisticated diagnostic assessment, or whether simple symptomatic treatment with antiepileptic drugs alone can provide them sustained comfort and quality of life. Lack of awareness by the medical community and differences in quality and availability of medical services mean a lack of comprehensive and consistent case reporting, and thus substantial underreporting. In non-endemic industrialized countries imported cases have been found in, for example, carriers of intestinal-stage T. solium infection, who, through food-handling and other modes of contact, can be sources of locally-acquired cases, and persons with latent cysticercosis of the central nervous system. Human carriers of T. solium can routinely be diagnosed by the detection of proglottids or eggs in faeces, or by more sensitive methods such as the detection of Taenia antigens in stools or specific antibodies in serum.

3. Human cysticercosis is a disease associated with poverty in areas where people eat pork and traditional pig husbandry is practised. It is endemic in the Andean area of South America, Brazil, Central America and Mexico; China, the Indian subcontinent and South-East Asia; and sub-Saharan Africa (see Annex). The spread of the disease is facilitated by poor hygiene, inadequate sanitation and the use of untreated or partially treated wastewater in agriculture. However, cycticercosis can also occur in individuals who do not raise pigs or consume pork. For example, there have been reports of infections in people who are vegetarians or who do not eat pork on religious grounds (in India, Kuwait and United States of America).

4. Cysticercosis of the central nervous system is an important cause of chronic epilepsy, which places particular demands on the health services. When cysticercosis is associated with epilepsy, the burden of disease will dramatically increase owing to the social stigmatization and discrimination surrounding the latter. This stigmatization may be a barrier to providing adequate diagnosis and treatment. As cases of cysticercosis of the central nervous system tend to be found in clusters, as has been shown in industrialized countries, the epilepsy related to it can result in a particularly high socieconomic burden for affected families in the – invariably poor – endemic areas.

MEASURES CURRENTLY AVAILABLE TO CONTROL CYSTICERCOSIS

5. To control cysticercosis, the following measures are available:

• Case management, reporting and surveillance. Clinically, people with cysticercosis of the central nervous system usually present with unspecific neurological symptoms such as epilepsy, for which adequate case management should be available in health services. Such management requires a consensus on standardized criteria and guidelines for early differential diagnosis in peripheral health care structures, with emphasis on resource-poor areas as well as for possible treatment or referral to the next level of the health care system. Better surveillance and reporting will lead to a more accurate understanding of the extent of the problem and to the identification of foci of transmission.

• Identification and treatment of individuals who are direct sources of contagion (human carriers of adult tapeworm) and their close contacts, combined with hygiene education and better sanitation, will interrupt or reduce the cycle of direct person-to-person transmission, an approach that has been successfully applied to other contagious diseases.

• Universal or selected treatment with praziquantel (10 mg/kg body weight)1 has significantly reduced the prevalence of human taeniasis in areas where T. solium infection is endemic, such 1 Praziquantel in a dose greater than 10 mg/kg body weight may have an effect against cysticerci, but may also increase peri-cysticercal inflammation. In cases where cysticerci have been located in the central nervous system, neurological symptoms have been reported after treatment with praziquantel at doses exceeding 10 mg/kg. as in Mexico. In order to limit reinfection of humans by the intermediate hosts, treatment needs to be accompanied by veterinary sanitary measures such as enforced meat inspection and control, improvement of pig husbandry and inspection, and treatment of infected animals.

Single-dose therapeutic agents, for example oxfendazole, have recently become available and appear to be effective, with no deleterious effects on animals or on the meat product. Animal vaccines are under development.

• Long-term success is more likely when anthelminthic chemotherapy programmes are integrated into a wider intersectoral approach to increase public awareness and hygiene practices; additional measures to sustain the impact of specific interventions include the provision of clean water and sanitation, and health education about parasite transmission and ways to improve hygienic behaviour and sanitary conditions of humans and animals. A comprehensive improvement in living conditions, appropriate legislation, modernization of swine husbandry, and improvement in efficiency and coverage of meat inspection, have reduced transmission in many industrialized countries.

RESPONSES AND WHO ACTIVITIES

6. Although substantial fragmentary information is available from local settings, national and global burdens of cysticercosis due to Taenia solium in terms of human suffering and economic losses in the veterinary field still have to be comprehensively assessed. WHO is currently undertaking such an assessment.

7. With regard to control, several strategies at small- or medium-scale level have proven to be successful. Yet, no intervention programme has been implemented so far at the national level with proven success. In 1993, the International Task Force for Disease Eradication declared Taenia solium a potentially eradicable parasite, for the following reasons: (i) the life cycle requires humans as definitive hosts; (ii) tapeworm infections in humans are the only source of infection for pigs, the natural intermediate host; (iii) the transmission of infection from pigs to human beings can be controlled; (iv) no reservoir for infection exists in wildlife. It is therefore expected that the strategic use of anthelminthics against the adult parasite in people and the larval parasite in swine, combined with health education and regulation of pig slaughter, is sufficient to interrupt transmission, but this approach has yet to be proven in practice. Although cysticercosis due to Taenia solium is considered to be a potentially eradicable disease, there is, however, no evidence yet that eradication is feasible and recommendable within a reasonable time frame. It appears, therefore, realistic to aim for the rapid definition of a simple package of interventions, such as the strategic use of anthelminthics against the adult parasite in humans and the larval parasite in swine, that will give an optimal, long-term relief from the burden of disease.

8. Taeniasis and cysticercosis do not lead to sudden large-scale international outbreaks of disease and therefore would not seem to constitute an appropriate subject for international notification. Nevertheless, national authorities should be strongly encouraged to set up national surveillance and reporting systems, and adopt a more active approach towards prevention and control of these diseases. As a step towards promoting the control of human cysticercosis, particularly as a preventable cause of epilepsy, a consensus has yet to be reached on crucial elements such as clinical diagnosis and treatment in resource-poor settings, surveillance and reporting methods, and cost-effective and sustainable intervention strategies. The successful outcome of the application of these elements should vindicate the control approach and lead to substantial relief of disease burden and possibly to the elimination of disease.

9. Enhanced control of human cysticercosis and cysticercosis of the central nervous system will contribute to several international initiatives such as WHO’s Global Campaign against Epilepsy – “Out of the Shadows”, the scaling up of the response to diseases of poverty, the Food Safety Programme and the recently launched Partners for Parasite Control. A more proactive attitude towards the control of Taenia solium cysticercosis can be integrated into and promoted through these initiatives.

ACTION BY THE HEALTH ASSEMBLY

10. The Health Assembly is invited to note the report.

http://www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA55/ea5523.pdf http://www.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA56/ea5610.pdf

Dünya Sağlık Örgütü 2007-ALKOL RAPORU

http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/alcohol_injury_summary.pdf

http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf

DÜNYA SAĞLIK ÖRGÜTÜ 2004 ALKOL RAPORU

WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004

Oropharyngeal, oesophageal and liver cancers

Alcohol has consistently been related to the risk of cancer of the mouth (lip, tongue), pharynx, larynx, hypopharynx, oesophagus and liver (Corrao et al., 1999; English et al., 1995; Gurr, 1996; Single et al., 1999; US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000; WHO, 2000a). The relationship between average volume of alcohol consumption and cancer is usually characterized as almost monotonically increasing relative risks with increasing volume of drinking (Bagnardi et al., 2001).

Female breast cancer

Much research has been conducted over the last decade on breast cancer. Prior to 1995, it has most often been concluded that evidence of a causal relationship with alcohol was insufficient (English et al., 1995; Rosenberg, Metzger & Palmer, 1993; Schatzkin & Longnecker, 1994). However, recent studies and reviews have shown that not only hazardous or harmful drinking, but also even moderate alcohol consumption, can cause female breast cancer (Single et al., 1999). A meta-analysis by Smith-Warner et al. (1998) found a clear linear relationship over the whole continuum of consumption. Other original studies supported this finding (Bowlin et al., 1997; Corrao et al., 1999; Nasca et al., 1994; Royo-Bordonada et al., 1997; Swanson et al., 1997; van den Brandt, Goldbohm & van ‘t Veer, 1995; Wingo et al., 1997).

Cancers of the stomach, pancreas, colon, rectum, prostate, salivary glands, ovarium, endometrium, bladder

Many recent research projects have investigated whether these cancers are alcohol-related. Overall, evidence for a causal relationship between alcohol and cancer of the stomach, pancreas, colon, rectum, if any was found, was weak and inconclusive (Bode & Bode, 1997; Boutron et al., 1995; De Stefani et al., 1998; Gapstur, Potter & Folsom, 1994; Harnack et al., 1997; Ji et al., 1996 ; Longnecker & Enger, 1996; Lundberg & Passik, 1997; Piette, Barnett & Moos, 1998; Sarles, Bernard & Johnson, 1996; Seitz, Poschl & Simanowski, 1998; Seitz et al., 1998; Soler et al., 1998). A recent meta-analysis assessing the link between alcohol and various types of cancer showed that statistically significant increases in risk existed for cancers of the stomach, colon, rectum and ovaries (Bagnardi et al., 2001).

On prostate cancer, again most studies did not report observing an increased risk (Breslow & Weed, 1998; Ellison et al., 1998; Hiatt et al., 1994; Tavani et al., 1994), whereas two cohort studies (Ajani et al., 1998; Putnam et al., 1998) and one case–control study (Hayes et al., 1996) reported a small increased risk in men who consume even moderate amounts of alcohol.

It has been hypothesized that alcohol might constitute a risk factor for cancer of the major salivary glands (Horn-Ross, Ljung & Morrow, 1997; Muscat & Wynder, 1998), ovarium, endometrium (Bradley et al., 1998; Longnecker & Enger, 1996; Newcomb, Trentham-Dietz & Storer, 1997; Parazzini et al., 1995), and the bladder (Bruemmer et al., 1997; Donato et al., 1997; Longnecker & Enger, 1996; Yu et al., 1997). For each of these sites, results were either scarce or heterogeneous, or the effects, if any were found, not statistically significant. In sum, evidence for a causal relationship between alcohol and cancers of these sites so far has not produced consistent results, especially with regard to physiological pathways. Overall, the risk relationship between alcohol and alcohol-related cancers can be characterized by an almost linear dose–response relationship between volume of drinking and the relative risk of outcome. Although there have been speculations about the impact of patterns of drinking, especially for breast cancer (Kohlmeier & Mendez, 1997), the current state of knowledge does not suggest that patterns of drinking play an important role in the etiology of cancer.2

Cardiovascular disease

There is increasing research in the past decades about the role of alcohol as both a risk and protective factor for cardiovascular disease. Coronary heart disease and the protective role of alcohol has been the focus of most research and will be discussed in a separate point below. Most studies suggest that low-level consumption equally offers some protection against ischaemic stroke.

In contrast, hypertension and other cardiovascular disorders such as cardiac arrhythmias or heart failure are adversely affected by alcohol (see Friedman, 1998; Klatsky, 1995; Puddey et al., 1999; Rosenqvist, 1998; US Department of Health and Human Services, 1997; Wood et al., 1998). There are some indications that hypertension may be related to the pattern of heavy drinking occasions (Murray et al., 2002; Puddey et al., 1999; Wannamethee & Shaper, 1991).

For haemorrhagic stroke, the weight of evidence suggests an increase in risk for males even at low levels of consumption (Berger et al., 1999; Jackson, 1994; Sacco et al., 1999; You et al., 1997). For females the most recent meta-analyses of Ridolfo and Stevenson (2001) suggested a protective effect for drinking below 40 g pure ethanol per day, but an 8-fold increased risk for drinking above these limits. Patterns of drinking not only play a role in any protective effects of alcohol on CHD, drinking patterns are also relevant to risks of stroke (Hillbom, Juvela & Karttunen, 1998) and for sudden cardiovascular death or cardiovascular death in general (Kauhanen et al., 1997a; Kauhanen et al., 1997b; Kozarevic et al., 1982; Poikolainen, 1983; Wannamethee & Shaper, 1992) with heavy drinking occasions and intoxication resulting in increased risk.

Liver cirrhosis

Alcohol has been estimated as the leading cause of liver cirrhosis in established market economies (Corrao et al., 1997; Corrao et al., 1998; English et al., 1995). There is some debate whether alcohol’s contributory role should be restricted to alcoholic liver cirrhosis alone or be extended to unspecified liver cirrhosis. Several authors contend that, empirically, it is extremely difficult to separate alcoholic from unspecified liver cirrhosis, and that the term “unspecified liver cirrhosis” is applied when no specific etiological factor is reported or identified (English et al., 1995). Research in the United States and in Central and South American countries indicated that an appreciable proportion of cirrhosis deaths without mention of alcohol was in fact attributable to alcohol (Haberman & Weinbaum, 1990; Puffer & Griffith, 1967; Room, 1972).

On the other hand, applying RRs of liver cirrhosis derived in established market economies to other countries can be extremely misleading. In many countries (e.g. China or India), liver cirrhosis is mainly caused by other factors such as viral infections. The corresponding AAFs have been shown to vary between less than 10% (China) and 90 % (Finland) (WHO, 2000a). The relationship between alcohol consumption and liver cirrhosis seems to be mainly dependent on volume of drinking and independent of patterns of drinking (Lelbach, 1975; Lelbach, 1976). However, some research also indicates a potential effect of occasions of heavy drinking (Rhodés, Salaspuro & Sorensen, 1993).

Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy is related to various risks to the fetus, which include gross congenital anomalies and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD), which include conditions such as fetal alcohol syndrome (Alvear, Andreani & Cortes, 1998; Church et al., 1997; Faden, Graubard & Dufour, 1997; Habbick et al., 1997; Larkby & Day, 1997; Larroque & Kaminski, 1996; Mattson et al., 1997; Passaro & Little, 1997; Passaro et al., 1996; Polygenis et al., 1998; Roebuck, Mattson & Riley, 1998; Shu et al., 1995; Windham et al., 1995). FASD ranges from individual anomalies at one end and serious neurobiological dysfunctions, including mental retardation, on the other (Connor & Streissguth, 1996). The prenatal teratogenic effects of alcohol also include lethal consequences. They comprise spontaneous abortion, low birth weight, fetal damage, prematurity, and intrauterine growth retardation (Abel, 1997; Bradley et al., 1998; Windham et al., 1997).

Mental conditions

The co-morbidity of alcohol dependence with other mental conditions is high, both in clinical and in general population samples (e.g. Grant & Harford, 1995; Merikangas et al., 1998). The crucial question in this respect is about causation. Sufficient evidence for a causal role of alcohol consumption at this point of research appears to exist mainly for depression. Since this relationship is controversial it will be discussed below in a separate section.

Other chronic conditions

Other risks of alcohol consumption currently discussed in the literature include epilepsy (see e.g. Jallon et al., 1998; Leone et al., 1997; Martín et al., 1995), acute and chronic pancreatitis (Ammann, Heitz & Klöppel, 1996; Skinazi, Lévy & Bernades, 1995; Damström Thakker, 1998; Robles-Diaz & Gorelick, 1997) and psoriasis (English et al., 1995). Beneficial health effects of alcohol consumption excluding CHD

Ischaemic stroke

Cerebrovascular disease (stroke) consists of several subtypes, the most common subtypes being ischaemic stroke and haemorrhagic stroke, which are affected differently by alcohol. For ischaemic stroke, the predominant type of stroke, the weight of evidence including biological mechanisms, suggests effects similar to those for CHD, namely that low to moderate consumption may offer some protection (Beilin, Puddey & Burke, 1996; Hillbom, 1998; Keil et al., 1997; Kitamura et al., 1998; Knuiman & Vu, 1996; Sacco et al., 1999; Thun et al., 1997; Yuan et al., 1997; Wannamethee & Shaper, 1996). Alcohol consumption has detrimental effects on haemorrhagic stroke.

Other beneficial health effects of alcohol consumption

Alcohol may offer some protection against diabetes and cholelithiasis (gallstones) (English et al., 1995; see also Ashley et al., 2000, for a recent overview on beneficial effects of alcohol). Findings from a cohort of more than 40 000 male health professionals showed that moderate alcohol consumption may decrease the risk of diabetes, perhaps through the effects of alcohol on insulin sensitivity (Rimm et al., 1995). The protective effect was further substantiated, mainly in studies in established market economies (Perry et al., 1995; Ajani et al., 1999), however there may be differential effects on men and women, and even detrimental effects at higher levels of intake (Wei et al., 2000; Kao et al., 1998). Plausible biological mechanisms were seen to exist in mediating effects of moderate alcohol intake on glucose tolerance and insulin resistance (Facchini, Chen & Reaven, 1994; Kiechl et al., 1996; Lazarus, Sparrow & Weiss, 1997; Flanagan et al., 2000).

With regard to cholelithiasis (gallstones) there is some evidence that alcohol may offer some protection against gallstones (English et al., 1995; Holman et al., 1996). These findings have been substantiated by recent large-scale cohort and case-control studies, which reported an inverse relationship (Attili et al., 1998; Caroli-Bosc et al., 1998; Chen et al., 1999; Leitzmann et al., 1998).

http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf